Mill’s Utilitarianism Essay

In the beginning of Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill states that throughout history very little progress has been made towards developing a set of moral standards to judge what is morally right or wrong. Although a certain disagreement about such foundations can also be found in the most â€Å"certain† sciences, in those areas truths can still have meaning without understanding the principles underlying them. On the other hand, in philosophy, where all actions exist to proceed towards a particular end, statements unfounded upon a general principle have very little validity. Therefore Mill says that in order to know what morality dictates, it is necessary to know by what standard human actions should be judged. He rejects the idea of a moral instinct inherent in human mind, which supplies us with this ability to judge. Even if such a sense would exist, it wouldn’t show us whether something is right or wrong in a particular matter. Instead, Mill assumes that right and wrong are questions of experience and he tries to show that the principle of utility or â€Å"the greatest happiness principle† is the foundation of this distinction. In Chapter two, Mill tries to reply to some common misconceptions about utilitarianism. He claims that many people mistake utility as the rejection of pleasures, whereas in reality, it is pleasure itself, promoting happiness. He thus defines utilitarianism as the creed which â€Å"holds that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness†. Accordingly pleasure and absence of pain are the only goals that are inherently good and desirable in themselves. Every other action or experience is only insofar good as it promotes pleasure. However, it is wrong to assume people should only do what makes them personally happy. Instead the standard of judging an act is the happiness of all people. Therefore people shouldn’t distinguish between their own happiness and the happiness of others. The motives underlying a certain act are of no importance in utilitarianism. Instead only the results of our conduct, or more specifically the impact on the general happiness, are to consider. In continuing, Mill states that some pleasures are more valuable than others, so not only the quantity but also the quality of pleasures resulting from a certain act determines its moral rightness. We can experience this difference in quality when we give one pleasure a clear preference over another, although it comes along with a greater amount of discomfort, and would not dismiss it for any quantity of the other pleasure. Mill claims that, given equal access to all kinds of pleasures, every man or woman gives priority to those employing their higher faculties. Appropriately he writes that †it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question†. Thus only people who have experienced both the higher and the lower pleasures are qualified to judge the quality of a pleasure. But by what extent are pleasures measurable or comparable? And what is it that makes a â€Å"higher† pleasure superior over a â€Å"lower†? Another criticism Mill responds to is that happiness can’t be the goal of human actions, since it’s unattainable. Moreover, detractors of the utilitarian moral state that a life without happiness is quite possible, and all noble beings have become virtuous by renunciation. Mill objects that if happiness is defined as moments of rapture, â€Å"in an existence made up of few and transitory pains† and not as a â€Å"continuity of highly pleasurable excitement† happiness is quite attainable. The only reason why mankind is not yet in this condition of happiness is because our education and our social arrangements are inadequate. Concerning the objection that virtuous men renounced happiness Mill asserts that those noble men acted as martyrs, sacrificing their own happiness in order to increase the happiness of other people. However, such a sacrifice is not in itself an act of good but only insofar as it helps others. Mill presents a couple of other misapprehensions of utilitarian ethics, which he says are obviously wrong but which many people nevertheless believe. First, utilitarianism is often accused to be godless, because its foundation is human happiness, and not the will of god. But if we assume that god desires in the first instance the happiness of his creatures, then utilitarianism is more profoundly religious than any other doctrine. Another objection holds that there is not enough time to outweigh the effects on the general happiness prior to every action taken. Mill replies that such a claim also implies that if our conduct is guided by Christianity we’d have to read the Old and New Testament every time before we act. Obviously this is not possible. Instead he asserts that we had the entire duration of human existence to learn by experience which actions lead to certain results. The last critique Mill responds to is that utilitarianism legitimates immoral tendencies by justifying the break of rules by referring to an increase of utility. He replies that this problem can not only be found in utilitarianism but also in every other creed. Does this argument really dispel misconceptions about utilitarianism? In the beginning of chapter three Mill asserts that every moral philosophy needs some source of obligation in order to be binding. Regarding utilitarianism this binding force consists of internal and external sanctions. External sanctions include â€Å"the hope of favour and the fear of displeasure from our fellow creatures or from the Ruler of the Universe†. Internal sanctions on the other hand, are feelings in our own conscience and create a pain if we violate duty. This second type of sanction is considered to be more powerful. Thus to provide a force which is binding enough to influence people’s conduct, utilitarianism needs to appeal to people’s inner sentiment. Mill claims that in fact every moral sentiment could be cultivated, no matter how bad it is. However such â€Å"artificial† feelings, will eventually crumble when they are analyzed thoroughly. The utilitarian morality on the other hand, emerges as a particularly strong foundation because it’s consistent with the social nature of human sentiments: every one of us has an innate â€Å"desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures†. Mill finally emphasizes that this natural sentiment needs to be nourished through education and law. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. John Stuart, Mill, Utilitarianism, ed. Mary Waldrep (Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. , 2007), 1. [ 2 ]. Mill, 6. [ 3 ]. Mill, 8. [ 4 ]. Mill, 11. [ 5 ]. Mill, 11. [ 6 ]. Mill, 24. [ 7 ]. Mill, 27.

Effects of Armed Conflicts on Women

Armed conflict has always been an inherent characteristic of the world we live in. The causes of conflict can be multifarious ranging from attempts to gain economic, political or territorial advantage to social factors such as religion and ethnicity. Armed conflicts can also be varied in nature with inter, intra and even non state combatants fighting against each other. The complexity and scale of armed conflicts have increased to a great extent with the emergence of non-state terrorist and mercenary groups that lacks the distinctiveness of traditional state armies fighting against each other. The consequences have been devastating for an increasing number of the population of the world who are affected by such armed conflicts. These include not only the combatants but also civilians who get caught up in the fighting in one way or the other. In fact civilian casualties have been on the rise and climbing â€Å"dramatically from 5 per cent at the turn of the century, to 15 per cent during World War I, to 65 per cent by the end of World War II, to more than 75 per cent in the wars of the 1990s. † (UN Report, 2001) A very stereotypical view regarding armed conflicts is that it is the men who fight the battles while the women support them by taking care of the home front. Men are perceived as the fighters who suffer causalities while women have to play out the traditional roles of wives, mothers and care givers and are therefore comparatively unaffected by war. Byrne (1996) however holds that even though it is largely men who directly fight and die in battles, it is women who constitute an overwhelming majority of the civilian casualties of war. Byrne goes on to add that the concept of women staying safely at home while the men fight the war at the front, and the differentiation between ‘conflict’ and ‘safe’ zones in armed conflict are essentially myths that do not take stock of the practical situation. Moreover, the fact that a growing number of women are also participating in armed conflicts around the world as active combatants and not merely as passive support providers adds a new dimension to the effects of armed conflicts on women. The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and the role of Women in Peace-Building (2001) commissioned by the United Nations Development Funds for Women chose ‘During Armed Conflict Women’s Bodies Become a Battleground’ as the title of the introductory chapter of its report. This exemplifies the extent of violence against women as a result of armed conflicts. Civilians have become the primary targets in new terror tactics that have evolved in armed conflicts. But it is women who suffer most. Men and boys as well as women and girls are the victims of this targeting, but women, much more than men, suffer gender-based violence. Their bodies become a battleground over which opposing forces struggle. † (Rehn & Sirleaf, 2001) The United Nations defines violence against women as â€Å"any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, inc luding threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private. † (Machel, 2000) It is a matter of grave concern that women are actually subjected to every conceivable act of violence and more, that can fall under the purview of the definition. Not only do women face generic violence such as torture, killing, imprisonment and forced labour under conditions of war, but they also suffer gender-specific violence that strike at the very core of their existence. They are abducted and raped, used as sexual slaves, forced to cook, clean, carry water and loads and do other domestic chores; and even used as human shields or put to risky undertakings such clearing minefields. There are numerous examples. Rehn & Sirleaf (2001) reports that â€Å"94% per cent of displaced households surveyed in Sierra Leone had experienced sexual assaults, including rape, torture and sexual slavery†¦ at least 250,000 – perhaps as many as 500,000 – women were raped during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. † This however is only the tip of the iceberg. The sufferings of women in armed conflicts never seem to end. They are forced by the circumstances to sell sex to survive, they are taken advantage of sexually even by people who are supposed to help them, and finally, they have to face censure at the hands of those very near and dear ones for whom they make all the sacrifices. Such is their plight. The Reason Why The roots of the violence that women suffer during the course of armed conflicts are however opined to lie elsewhere. Violence is said to be perpetuated on women not solely because of the conditions of war but because of a direct relation with violence in the life of women even during peace time (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). The relationship between the genders is determined by the extent of access to or distribution of power. Men are in more control of resources and power than women. Since women do not have control over power and resources they as a gender are usually not the cause behind wars. In spite of that they suffer because of their inherent power and control position vis-a-vis men. Again, the greater emphasis by nations on increasing their military strength results in a deterioration of the rights of women exacerbating the inequalities in gender relations. In a display of unadulterated hypocrisy however, many armed conflicts are justified on the grounds of restoring or maintaining gender equality. This was clearly the case in the American invasion of Afghanistan ion 2001 when liberation of women from the fanatical regime of the Talibans was cited as a reason even though there was hardly any concern for the plight of the same women during the five years prior to the invasion even when local and international NGOs constantly strived to draw attention to their sufferings (Jack, 2003). It is very true that â€Å"although entire communities suffer the consequences of armed conflict and terrorism, women and girls are particularly affected because of their status in society and their sex. † (Beijing Declaration, 1996). The effect of war on women depends to a great extent on their gendered role that defines their constraints and opportunities in society. Women become more vulnerable war atrocities when they are perceived as symbolic bearers of the pride and honour of a community. In such cases women are specifically targeted as a way of denting the very essence of he rival community. In regions where women are deemed to represent the cultural and ethnic identity of communities as the producer of future generations, any assault on their honour becomes an assault on the morale and honour of the entire community. Under such circumstances public rape and torture of women is considered to have serious demoralizing effects on enemy communities. The victors or occupation forces resort to sexual exploitation of women because of such underlying war strategies coupled with inherent sexual urges. Yet the same symbolic role of women can be a cause of threat or attack even from their own community for not conforming to the role in some way or the other in adverse conditions, such as not wearing a veil or venturing into forbidden areas as has been the case in the Islamic world. Armed conflict is therefore like a double edged sword for women. Societal norms also force women to bear atrocities. The comments of a doctor working with Save the Children Fund, in an ICRC/TVE film (2000) illustrate the point: In certain villages bordering conflict young girls have admitted that armed men come in at night – these girls are used as sex workers – they are not allowed to protest – they are not allowed to lock their doors and the whole community tolerates this because these armed men protect the community – so it is a trade off. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  When sexual violence is used as a means of warfare or when women are pressurized to bear children as a means of supply of future soldiers, women become a very vulnerable gender to the violence of armed conflict. In conflict zones such as Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo, sexual violence was used as a means of ‘ethnic cleansing’. The Serbian police and paramilitary forces used rape to punish women belonging to the Kosovo Liberation Army (Human Rights Watch, 2000). Different Wars, Different Stages, Different Roles The different kinds of armed warfare, their different stages and the different roles that women play in these conflicts all have different effects on women. Modern armed conflicts are fought between adversaries that are very different from the conventional state armies. Terrorist groups and non-state players give armed conflicts a new dimension in the modern world. The problem with such combatants is that they do not adhere to international laws governing warfare and have no scruples in indulging in violence and atrocities that would fall in the category of war crimes. The Geneva Conventions and its protocols find no takers in them. They are not regulated by any authority and are guided either by their own perverted consciences or by fanatical ideologies. As a result women become more susceptible all kinds of violence from such elements in armed conflict. Armed conflicts usually pass through different stages viz. the pre-conflict stage or run up to the conflict, the conflict itself, the stage of conflict resolution or the peace process and the post conflict stage of reconstruction and reintegration. Each of these stages hold different horrors for women depending on the different roles that women play in such conflicts. Women act as agents of change when they participate in the prevention, resolution or management of armed conflicts. Their participation is very important because without them the views, needs and interests of half of the population go unrepresented. Conversely, women also act as agents of change when they indirectly support the men to take up arms for any cause which they may believe in. In the case of Rwanda, women were found to have been accomplices to and participants in gross acts of genocide (Lindsey, 2001). This indirect participation of women takes on added significance in their role as the primary influence on children. Women as mothers can influence children in many ways and mould them to serve as soldiers in armed conflicts. The simple act of women telling stories centered on sensitive issues of ethnic or clan conflicts could sensitize the children. Encouraging future generations to fight, may be considered as subtle participation of women in the armed conflicts as agents of change. Acting as agents of change is fraught with dangers because women often have to consciously take sides in their efforts to better the situation or to protect themselves and their families. They put themselves at risk in doing so. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) women of the South Kivu region were buried alive by people of their own villages because they were said to be witches. It was however found that they suffered their fate because the villagers suspected them of providing food and medicines to armed groups which the villagers did not support (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Women participate as active combatants in armed conflicts. â€Å"†¦the number of women who participate in fighting forces is increasing in nearly all conflicts. Women have constituted significant proportions of combatants and combat support operations in conflicts in Eritrea, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Uganda, and Rwanda † (USAID, 2007). As active combatants women face the same ravages of war as fighting men do. However, in many cases, women are abducted and forced to participate as combatants. The Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone made it a practice to raid villages and abduct children of both sexes to force them to join in the fighting. The abducted children were often raped, starved and drugged and then forced to kill. It has been the same in Uganda, Mozambique, Liberia and other war torn places. Women also get involved in the fighting as ‘followers’ of fighters. In such a role the woman does not carry arms but provide full and active support to the fighters. She acts as cook, domestic servant, sexual partner, guard or porter or all of these together. She may even be used as human shield in the fighting. It is not very difficult to imagine the trauma that she goes through in such roles. Women become victims and spoils of war. It is a very common practice of conquering forces to claim women of the defeated party as spoils of war. In an occupied land, women are also forced to curry sexual favors to the victorious forces for the sake of their own survival and the survival of their families. The fate of women is closely linked to the fate of their men. When men leave their homes to fight or die in the fighting, the women often becomes the primary bread winner of the family and has to take on additional role and responsibilities. This puts the woman in an entirely new social position, one that could even turn out to be advantageous but is more often than not a position that entails untold hardships on her. Left to fend alone for her family and herself, a woman could be driven to any extent and exploited easily under such circumstances. A woman usually finds herself in such a role in the post conflict stage of reconstruction and reintegration. Scars that do not heal Armed conflicts affect women physically, psychologically, economically, socially and even spiritually. They are more susceptible to violence than men because they are women. â€Å"Women are victims of unbelievably horrific atrocities and injustices in conflict situations; this is indisputable. As refugees, internally displaced persons, combatants, heads of household and community leaders, as activists and peace-builders, women and men experience conflict differently. Women rarely have the same resources, political rights, authority or control over their environment and needs that men do. In addition, their caretaking responsibilities limit their mobility and ability to protect themselves. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Gender Based Violence (GBV) can take many forms. Sexual violence in the form of rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, trafficking, genital mutilation and soliciting of sexual favors, as horrifying as they are, is only one aspect of the affect of war on women. Steep increase in domestic violence due to armed conflicts; the travails of displacement, forced or otherwise; the resultant adverse affects on health and increased exposure to infections and life-threatening diseases such as AIDS/HIV; the burden of additional social and economic responsibilities; and the lingering psychological, physical and social effects even after the end of hostilities are the multidimensional impacts of armed conflicts that are not quite as obvious, but devastating enough to merit closer scrutiny to understand their mechanism of operation. Sexual Violence and Physical Torture The continent of Africa is rife with armed conflicts. Many factors such as bad governance, illiteracy, deplorable economic conditions, political unrest and breakdown of social structures have contributed in fomenting armed struggles on unprecedented scales. Africa is a classic example of a society where the status of women as a subordinate and deprived class has added to their miseries during time so war. The majority of women in Africa is uneducated and live in abject isolation cut off even from all that is happening around them in politics and power play. They are therefore caught completely unawares when armed conflicts erupt. The subordination of women in Africa is accentuated in conflict situations. They are not only used as sexual objects who are to be humiliated and demeaned, but are also tortured and mutilated to deter them from carrying out stereotyped roles that are perceived to go against the interests of the perpetrators. During the documentation that has been carried out in Uganda, Liberia and Sierra Leone, women have testified that rebels cut off their lips, ears and nose giving various reasons for such acts (Ochieng, 2004). The same study also documents an instance in which a father was shot dead by enemy combatants when he refuse do have sexual intercourse with his daughter. The intention in this case was to inflict severe psychological torture on both the father and the daughter as incest is considered a blasphemy in Africa as in the rest of the world at large, and would leave permanent scars on the psyche of individuals and the society. Even when women participate as combatants on their own will, they are expected to submit to the sexual exploitations of their superiors. A United Nations document on the situation in Columbia states that â€Å"the situation of women and girls making part of illegal armed groups continues concerning the Council. Women and girl-combatants were objects of sexual abuse by their superiors in the hierarchy. † (Franco et. al. 2006). Abduction of women during armed conflicts is a practice that has its roots in deep in history. A well-known example is the large group of women who were labeled the ‘comfort women’ in the Far East during the Second World War. Things have not changed much. Only the scale, range and scope have. The sexual violence is not restricted to a particular stage of armed conflict but is widely prevalent in all the stages. If it is exploitation by the same side during the initial stage, the victorious lay their own claim on the womenfolk of the vanquished during the stage of active combat; this is followed by sexual exploitation of displaced women who go from place to place as refugees and are hounded sexually by a host of anti-social elements as well as those who are meant to protect and shelter them. This extends into the peace process and the reconstruction and reintegration stage when women ravaged and left helpless by the experience of war easily succumb to the lure of currying favors in exchange of sex. â€Å"Women are physically and economically forced or left with little choice but to become sex workers or to exchange sex for food, shelter, safe passage or other needs; their bodies become part of a barter system, a form of exchange that buys the necessities of life. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). There have been reports of the situation being attenuated by the arrival of peacekeeping forces when personnel from these forces also indulge in sexually exploiting women in return for food, security, shelter, employment and other favors. The independent study commissioned by the United Nations Development Fund for Women were told by members of the local community in the Kisangani and Goma regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo that peace keepers having sex with local girls and that condoms were lying visibly scattered just outside the UN compounds. It was however the desperate women who took the initiative for such sexual liaisons. Trafficking is another adverse affect that is closely associated with armed conflict. Countries with armed conflict are ideal breeding grounds for trafficking because breakdown in law and order and reduced border controls and policing. Criminal networks of arms and drug dealers that operate in war torn countries easily double up as traffickers in women. The women are taken out to work in illegal factories, as slaves or as prostitutes in brothels in red light areas. Rise in armed conflicts have triggered a simultaneous rise in trafficking throughout the world. Trafficking worldwide grew almost 50 per cent from 1995 to 2000 (Financial Times, March 19, 2001), and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that as many as 2 million women are trafficked across borders annually. A survey conducted in Cambodia in 1995 revealed that about 31 per cent of the prostitutes in Phnom Penh and 11 other provinces were between the ages of 12 and 17, and had been trafficked out of the conflict-stricken countryside (Human Rights Task Force on Cambodia, 1996). Trafficking in women has assumed alarming proportions in Columbia due to the civil war which has dragged on for decades in the country. It is estimated that around 50,000 women are trafficked out of Columbia every year. Bosnia and Herzegovina in south-east Europe also experience very high trafficking in women due to the same basic reason. Traffickers lure women out of these areas on the pretext of giving them jobs. They are then forced into sexual slavery. The traffickers take away the travel documents of the women so that they are not able to escape. Once they are in the trap it is very difficult for these women to return home to their societies even if they are rescued. Though many family in the war torn countries are desperate enough not to question where the money their daughters send home comes from, they will also not accept the women back if they come to know that they had been working as prostitutes or sex slaves. As a result, the girls go through multiple traumas: first they are separated from home, thereafter they are sexually exploited and brutalized and finally they face rejection from their own families. Trafficking is a vicious trap that leads the women who fall prey to it to ultimate destruction unless there is institutional intervention. Since armed conflict and trafficking go hand in hand, women in trouble-torn regions are always vulnerable to trafficking. Forced Displacement Forced Displacement is actually not an inevitable outcome of all armed conflicts, but it is frequently adopted as a strategy of war to destabilize enemy families and communities, to uproot the enemy so that it is scattered and weakened. Forced displacement is however a â€Å"the clearest violation of human, economic, political and social rights and of the failure to comply with international humanitarian laws† (Moser & Clark, 2001). Though displacement during armed conflict is viewed as a temporary process, examples in countries such as Sudan, Sri Lanka and Somalia show that it could extend into a prolonged affair, with succeeding generations having to stay away from the place of origin. Displacements can have multiple effects on women. For women displacement implies increased difficulties in managing household responsibilities as access to resources is cut off or becomes unavailable. Displacement has also been found to lead to a reversal in roles with women assuming the position of the head of the household. This is very evident in Sudan. Ethnic groups such as the Dinka, Nuer and Nuba have been displaced from their place of origin and face severe marginalization. The women of these communities take on added responsibilities of the missing men. Much of this added responsibility is transferred to younger members of the family, especially young girls. Young girls have to not only do domestic chores, but also look after the children, sick and the elderly. They lose out on valuable study and play time which affects their futures negatively. All displaced people face social exclusion, so do women. Staying in an alien environment without the usual support and protection from the male members of the family can be a very terrifying and psychologically scarring experience. In strife-torn Columbia, displacement has become a perennial problem. An estimated 40 million people have been forced to flee from their homes and seek sanctuary elsewhere. A whooping 80% of these displaced people are women and children (Security Council Report, 1999). This brings into sharp focus the high impact of displacement particularly on women. â€Å"The circumstances are unique in each country, but the stories are similar. In places such as Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Chechnya, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), East Timor, Guinea, Haiti, Indonesia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia and in the occupied Palestinian territories – whose people constitute the longest-standing and largest refugee population – women have been forced from their homes and exposed to indiscriminate violence while searching for a safe haven. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Displaced people face violence and hardship as they search for a safe haven. Women are especially vulnerable in such a situation. While on the run, and even after they have found refuge, women have to suffer the humiliation of rape and other forms of physical violence. In their constant struggle to provide for their families and themselves, they are forced to sell their bodies in exchange of provisions and favours. Again, displacement can be of two types: the refugee who has left the country of origin and crossed international borders, and the Internally Displaced Person or the IDP who has been forced to leave the place of original residence and has moved to a different part or region within the country. While international laws do provide some amount of protection and security to the refugee, such laws are not applicable in case of the IDP. The IDP therefore faces a plight worse than the refugee and is practically left all alone in the fight for survival. Even in the case of the refugee, a lot depends on the willingness of those in power in the host country to allow international agencies to aid or help the refugees. In many cases, armed opposition groups may refuse to provide access to international agencies fearing that their own human rights violations will be exposed. Forced displacement however has some positive effects too for women. When the displaced women takes over the reins of the household, many of the traditional shackles lose their hold on them and they find new avenues for self development and progress. They gain a sense of liberty that they did not have in their conventional male-dominated societies. Displacement also becomes a boon for women when they find refuse in well-established and properly run care centers which provide them adequate training and education to enable them to stand on their own feet. When this happens, the suppressed woman can break free and find her own moorings. Domestic Violence during Conflict That domestic violence increases proportionately with increase in armed conflict is a fact that had not been known until very recently. Conflict attenuates domestic violence in two ways: by breaking down communities and the natural regulatory functions of communities, and by escalating violence in the context of masculine and militarized conflict situations. Conflict leads to imbalances in power relations which in turn escalates domestic violence. Many things contribute to the increase in domestic violence – the availability of weapons, the violence male family members have experienced or meted out, the lack of jobs, shelter, and basic services (Lindsey, 2002). In a conflict situation, men get used to violence either by suffering violence or meting violence to others. This sort of acclimatizes them and makes them more prone to the use of violence. The experience of war changes some man from within so that they do not hesitate to apply violence in the domestic context. Combatants who return home after spending long years in fighting have been found to find it difficult to adjust to peace time. There have been instances when men returning form war have killed their own wives. Studies in Cambodia in the mid-1990s indicated that many women – as many as 75 per cent in one study – were victims of domestic violence, often at the hands of men who have kept the small arms and light weapons they used during the war (Lutz & Elliston, 2002). In the Middle East too, there have been reports of men returning from fighting and using the same tactics of torture used in war on their wives in glaring cases of domestic violence. Israel responded to the second Intifada by imposing restrictions on the movement of Palestinians. This led to unemployment, frustration and overcrowded living conditions. The release has been noticed in the form of increased domestic violence within families, crimes against women within the family. Women were being raped and tortured by the frustrated men. The problem in the case of domestic violence is that there are very few laws to protect women from domestic. Even where such laws have been framed, they are not imposed, especially during periods of conflict. The United Nations itself has only recently woken up to the situation. War and Women’s health War has a profound negative effect on health. The direct impact is the casualties of war. Men and women die in large number in any armed conflict. In the event of continued armed struggles medical systems and facilities tend to break down. The expert’s independent report by Rehn & Sirleaf (2001) had this to report of the casualties of war: â€Å"In 2000 alone, conflict is estimated to have directly resulted in 310,000 deaths, with more than half taking place in sub-Saharan Africa. If the commonly held ratio is accurate – nine indirect deaths for every direct death caused by conflict – then approximately 2. 8 million people died in 2000 of some conflict-related cause. Arguably the figure is much higher. When the direct fatalities are estimated by age and sex, children and adolescents account for a significant proportion of the deaths. The highest mortality rates are among men aged 15 to 44, but a quarter of direct mortality is among women. The greatest number of deaths of women is among those aged 15 to 29; some 25,000 women in this age group died directly of conflict in 2000. The International Rescue Committee has estimated that between August 1998 and April 2001, there were 2. 5 million excess deaths (i. e. , above the number normally expected) in the five eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where armed groups have been fighting each other as well as attacking civilians. Only 350,000 of these deaths were directly caused by violence; the majority stemmed from disease and malnutrition. One in eight households had experienced at least one violent death; 40 per cent of these deaths were of women and children. There were more deaths than births in many of the areas studied and, in one area, 75 per cent of the children died before they reached the age of two. † The report speaks volume about the direct casualties that women suffer in armed conflicts. The indirect effects of armed conflicts on the health of women are perhaps more horrendous. The large scale rape and other sexual atrocities on women leaves them exposed to all forms of sexual diseases and infections including AIDS and HIV. Many women who manage to overcome the other travails of war have to finally accept defeat when they learn that they have contacted AIDS at the end of it. There have been instances, especially in the Rwandan armed conflicts when one ethnic community has deliberately tried to infect another ethnic community with AIDS. Epidemics break out in refugee camps claiming thousands of lives. Since the refugee camps house a larger number of women, they are affected the most. Women who have been raped or tortured suffer from mental problems. Unwanted pregnancies and adolescence pregnancies pose considerable threats to the health of women. In places such as Bosnia, Kosovar and Sierra Leone, women faced terrible dilemmas. Would they abort their unwanted babies or would they keep them? A majority of these women chose abortion because they feared rejection if they dared to keep the babies. In Sierra Lone, the matter becomes more complicated because abortions are declared illegal and it costs a lot of hard-earned money to have an abortion. All these have to be seen in the context of the conflict scenario when medical and health systems break down and there are acute shortages of medicines and trained medical personnel. Many women die at child birth due to lack of adequate care. Many babies die at birth leaving their mothers heartbroken. Provisions for Protection The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and its protocols remain the best applicable laws for the protection of women. The customary of international humanitarian laws can also be applied for the protection of women in conditions of armed conflicts. In 1993 and 1994 the Security Council established two ad hoc international criminal tribunals; the first to prosecute serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the former Yugoslavia, and the second to prosecute similar violations as well as genocide in Rwanda. The statute of the International Criminal Code was adopted in July 1998. All laws include many common clauses that can be effectively used for the protection of women in armed conflicts. These include the clause of non discrimination by which the same protection is to be given both to men and women. The law lays down that both men and women are to be â€Å"treated humanely (†¦) without adverse distinction founded on sex †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Moreover specific protection for women are accorded by Article 14 of the Third Geneva Convention which makes it mandatory that â€Å"women †¦ be treated with all the regard due to their sex. † Considerations for the privacy of women are also taken into account by the laws, so are provisions for expectant mothers. The Human Rights and the Refugee Laws too cover other aspects of protection for women in situations of armed conflict. The crux of the matter however is that the laws are as good as the intentions of those who are responsible for implementing them. The international community has to join hands in taking up the cudgel for women caught up in horrifying situations such as armed conflicts, and they have to take enough women with them to provide the healing touch as representatives of those who have suffered the insufferable. Throughout the ages, women have shown remarkable resilience to the vagaries of armed conflict. It is one war they have to win at any cost.

Bill French Case Essay

1. What are the assumptions implicit in Bill French’s determination of his company’s break-even point? * He has assumed that there is just one breakeven point for the firm (by taking the average of the 3 products). * He has also assumed that the sales mix will remain constant. Total revenue and total expenses behave in a linear manner over the relevant range. * Since the capacity is being expanded to increase production of Product C, it could be assumed that this increase should be allocated to this product. Production of Product A is to be scaled down, but its level of fixed costs has been assumed to be unchanged. * Constant dividends are paid out to the company’s stockholders. * Labor union will not significantly affect cost structure. No substantial changes in product prices. 2. On the basis of French’s revised information, what does next year look like? a. What is the break-even point? The break even unit for the aggregate production is 1,035,686 units. Calculation of the break even points using the new estimates: Breakeven points have been calculated using the formula: Breakeven number of units = Fixed costs / Contribution margin per unit, where Contribution margin per unit = Selling price – Variable cost per unit b. What level of operations must be achieved to pay the extra dividend, ignoring union demands? To pay the extra dividend of 50% and to retain the profit of 150,000 we need to have the profit after taxes as 600,000. As half of the revenues go to the government as taxes therefore the total revenues before tax deduction should be equal to 1,200,000. c. What level of operations must be achieved to meet union demands, ignoring bonus dividends? d. What level of operations must be achieved to meet both union demands & bonus dividends? 3. Can the break-even analysis help the company decide whether to alter the existing product emphasis? What can the company afford to invest for additional â€Å"C† capacity? Break even analysis can be used to decide whether to alter the existing product emphasis or not. In this case, based from previous year’s data, it is not feasible to manufacture product C at 2.40 / unit. Below table provides checking whether the company can afford to invest in additional C capacity. 4. Calculate each of the three products’ break even points using Exhibit 3. Why is the sum of these three volumes not equal to the 1,100,000 unit’s aggregate break-even volume? The sum of three break even volumes does not equate the aggregate break even volume because of varying fixed costs. It is illustrated in the below table: Question 5: Is this type of analysis of any value? For what can it be used? Break-Even analysis explains the relationship between cost, production, volume and returns. It can be extended to show how changes in fixed cost, variable cost, commodity prices, revenue will affect profit levels and break even points. Break even analysis is most useful when used with partial budgeting, capital budgeting techniques. The break even analysis helps understand and formulate the relationship between costs (fixed and variable), output and profit. The technique can be used to set sales targets and/or prices to generate target profits. In a wide product range, the analysis helps to find out which products are performing well and which are leading to losses .It is also versatile enough to include items like donations, wage increases, etc. that directly or indirectly affect costs.

Reading assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Reading - Assignment Example Although sovereign citizens have a lot of strategies which up their modus operandi, an interesting facet of these strategies is the use of bogus lien, in order to propagate and perpetuate sovereign citizens’ Redemption Scheme. In this regard, this paper seeks to address question 3 which demands for a discussion on how Sovereign citizens use of the law to unlawfully seize real estate and their legal "justification." According to Morlin (2013), members of the sovereign citizen use bogus lien to wage war against the government, its citizens, law enforcers and state agencies in order to intimidate, frustrate or threaten (them). The act of intimidating, threatening and even frustrating the government, its agencies, and state operatives is part of the wider Redemption Scheme. As a side note, the wideness of the Redemption Scheme is underscored by the fact that Redemption Scheme may even include killing police officers and the use of the law, as shall be seen forthwith. When law enfo rcers and/ or government officials begin to take legal actions on sovereign citizens, the officials are perceived as not acting within the frameworks of the legal authority. Liens are thus used as a war strategy against the official(s). Sovereign citizens use copyright and trademark laws to perpetuate the use of bogus lien. ... The measure above begins with members of sovereign citizens assessing the perceived damages wrought by the offender’s act of contravening copyright laws against sovereign citizens. These members may then issue First Notice and Demand for Settlement to the offender through certified mail, as a way of claiming monetary damages. Deadlines for the offender’s response may be mentioned. As is provided for by the FBI (2011), upon the expiry of the of the response period, sovereign citizens will issue a Second Notice and Demand for Settlement, with a specified response period through the same certified mail. Upon the expiry of the period for the second response, sovereign citizens may issue the offender with a Notice of Default or a Notice of Dishonor via certified mail. Ten days will be allowed for payment of monetary damages, forthwith. Since the offender seldom responds to these demands because of the fraudulent nature of the litigant’s claims, sovereign citizens will use copies of the previously sent notices and certified mail receipts to place liens against the offender’s assets and property. Provided that the lienor has completed payment on all filing fees and completed all paperwork, courts of law will give the placement of the lien the green light. This measure will not make it whether a lien is fraudulent or legitimate. Apart from the use of the legal measures above, members of sovereign citizens may also use the Common Law Grand Jury (CLGJ) and the Common Law Court (CLC) to perpetuate and justify their agenda. This is a tenable alternative since both CLC and CLGJ also comprise members of sovereign citizens who may pass judgment against offending parties. Members of sovereign citizens may use True Bills to issue Common Law liens against their target. The

Discuss and explain situations where OSHA would be able to enter and Assignment

Discuss and explain situations where OSHA would be able to enter and inspect a worksite without obtaining a warrant or the employers express consent - Assignment Example stances where the employer expressly refused inspection would the OSHA, by virtue to â€Å"Section 5(a)(1) of the Act, known as the â€Å"General Duty Clause,† which requires that every working man and woman must be provided with a safe and healthful workplace† (Occupational Safety & Health Administration, 2002, p. 1), obtain a warrant to inspect. Therefore, the instances or situations where OSHA would be able to enter and inspect a worksite without obtaining a warrant or the employer’s express consent include the following: (1) imminent danger situations that required immediate corrective actions (where the definition of imminent danger is explicitly stated as â€Å"any condition where there is reasonable certainty that a danger exists that can be expected to cause death or serious physical harm immediately or before the danger can be eliminated through normal enforcement procedures† (Occupational Safety & Health Administration, 2002, p. 3); (2) accident investigations, especially when more than three employees have been injured, become hospitalized or caused unfortunate deaths; and (3) when there are complaints for unsafe or unhealthy working conditions were apparently received from any member of the organization or its stakeholders (Occupational Safety & Health Administration,

Pension Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Pension - Essay Example e payments to the NIC; however, one can be credited with the NIC if they are getting some formal benefits such as unemployment, sickness and parental benefits (BLAKE, 2003, p.68). The current pension scheme is designed to have a flat-rate first-tier pension plan provided by the state. This pension scheme is referred to as Basic State Pension (BSP).Secondly we have the second tier or supplementary pension schemes which is provided by the state, private financial institutions, banks, insurance firms and employers. The BSP offers a pension scheme that is low compared to averages earnings, but the plan is fully indexed to prices upon retirement of the individual. The second tier pension plan offers relatively high pension that is partially indexed to prices up to a maximum of 5% per year after retirement. One of the disadvantages of the occupational pension schemes is that it is subject to change after change in employer. Lastly, we have the personal pension plans that offer partially indexed pensions but based on unpredictable investment returns and high administrative cost involved (BUCKLE and THOMPSON, 2004, p.126) To get the basic pension one is required to have 30 qualifying years (NIC payments) and at least eleven qualifying years to generate 25% of the max amount. The pension received is taxed by the government but the payments are gross meaning that one is taxed when they start getting their pension. It is apparent that a student who plans to start a pension for future use should know that there different types of pension one can pay and save the money. These types include state pension where an individual receives the money after retirement in regards to the number of years one has contributed or paid to National Insurance Contributions (NICs) (BUCKLE and THOMPSON, 2004, p.130). The individual should know that the eligible number of qualifying years one has to attain is eleven years, which generates twenty- five percent of the saving. For one to receive the

Human Resource Management history Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Resource Management history - Assignment Example Academics have responded positively to meet the challenges raised by the globalization of business by investigating a number of issues and problems related to international business. They have attempted to examine management from a cross-national viewpoint. This comparison of HRM policies and practices at a national level helps to test the convergence-divergence thesis. The typical questions pursued by comparative researchers are: (1) how is HRM structured in individual countries. (2) What strategies are discussed (3) What is put into practice (4) What are the similarities and differences (5) What is the influence of national factors such as culture, government policy, and education systems This paper assumes that the team members are not in close proximity to each other and the team leader might not always be in the same place as the team. The cross-cultural team consists of at least three different nationalities, with one member from the UK, one from South Asia and one from Eastern Europe. This paper also assumes that members of the team will differ in the three major values of power distance, uncertainty avoidance and human orientation. Strategies Both tangible and intangible dimensions of human resources are essential in developing a global competitive personnel profile that is unique, valuable, difficult to replicate, and provides the organization with a sustainable competitive advantage. Tangible human resource dimensions relate to the process, procedures, and systems established to identify, select, train, motivate, and retain the most competent personnel in the organization. Alternatively, intangible dimensions of human resources include the culture, learning capability, innovativeness, and collective action of the employees. Leveraging a firm's internal resources across its global network requires competent boundary-spanning managers developed within the firm's strategic global human resource management (SGHRM) system. Performance management requires managers to review regularly, with their teams and the individuals reporting to them, performance in relation to agreed objectives, the factors that have affected performance and the development and training needs that emerge from this analysis. Expatriates, having been socialized and developed in the headquarters, possess an intimate knowledge of the firm's internal resources, both in terms of their tangible and intangible dimensions, therefore, it is proposed: Proposition 1. If the firm's internal resources are critical for creating and sustaining a competitive advantage against rivals in a foreign market, then the global organization will assign management of that

Mental Health by the Red Cross Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Mental Health by the Red Cross - Essay Example The five different articles utilized in this paper are from a variety of backgrounds, ranging from the purely medical and scientific to reports by media professionals and concerned community members. The given paper aims to streamline and narrow the research scope and clearly flesh out a more coherent and viable research question. The Red Cross, founded in 1919 has been providing emergency relief services all over the world in all manners of disasters since almost a century, but it was not until 1989 that the need for addressing the mental health needs of disaster survivors was tabled seriously. Over the subsequent years Red Cross mental health services have developed and improved by leaps and bounds, evolving to provide both the victims of disasters as well as the workers and volunteers who help them to deal with the immense mental trauma and stress experienced by survivors and witnesses of such disasters. Red Cross mental health care has developed to provide a wide variety of cross-sectional mental care help to all types of affected parties, presenting a cross-functional and highly versatile approach to mental health care needs of all affected parties, whether victims or helpers. Mental health care begins with an assessment of the patients’ needs and requirements, this is often a complicated requirement as survivors of disaster victims are generally unaware of any mental trauma to themselves and instead focus on the more physical aspect of their wellbeing. Their care needs don’t usually immediately turn to mental health services (M. Hartsough, Don, Planning for Disaster: A new community outreach program for Mental Health centers, 1982). There is definitely a need for a mental health care outreach program that are linked to the disaster relief efforts. Such strategies need to be intrinsically related to three main components of disaster relief such as: Helpers, services, recipients and locations (Golan,

Crime and Passion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Crime and Passion - Essay Example Recognizing the fact that both positively and negatively disposed persons have their own frustrated needs that are actually motivating them to take different paths in life that they believe would lead hem to attaining the dreams that they have for themselves as well as for those who belong to them. As for this paper, the examination of the different paths that humans take depending on the life background that they have as the enhancers of the values that they utilize as basis of their actions. As for the cases noted in the articles analyzed in this paper, it could observed that the motivation of the humans utilized to reach to the status that they are at present resulted from decisions made from the idealisms that they believe in. The events that took place in their lives brought them to the kind of situation that they are in right now. For instance, in the text from the Sun Tabloid, it could be observed that Zoe, a newly chosen model, who emerged from a competition in Britain, noted that the tragic past that happened to her father brought her to a successful fight towards the fulfillment of her dreams.

International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

International Law - Essay Example The threat does not come from a charging cavalry but from a small group of individuals, specifically armed civilians, clandestinely operating to undermine an entire country or its economy. There is no declaration of war. The enemy simply launches an attack from within where majority of the casualties are innocent civilians. This is the era of unconventional warfare. Unlike war and belligerency which are governed by specific set of rules under the United Nations conventions and treaties, there exist no specific rules in international law that apply to unconventional conflicts.1 Unlike terrorists, the community of nations adheres to laws that govern the conduct of war, including but not limited to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, the Hague Conventions, and the 1977 Protocols to the Geneva Conventions. These basic laws are then complemented and supplemented by the human rights conventions and treaties. The absence of specific rules that apply to unconventional conflicts like terrorism gi ve rise to the debate as to whether or not unconventional conflicts can be legally regulated without conferring legal rights to terrorists. I submit to resolve the issue at hand in the negative. No, unconventional conflicts cannot be legally regulated without conferring legal rights to terrorists. ... Rumsfeld. The court ruled that Hamdan is entitled to the rights set forth in the common Article 3 of the four Geneva Conventions.2 In particular, these conventions are: first, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field; second, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea; third, the Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War; and fourth, the Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War.3 While the first three conventions govern the conduct of war between armed combatants and all those directly involved in the armed conflict, the last convention provides regulations as to how these combatants should conduct themselves with regard to unarmed civilians.4 The Geneva Conventions specifically declared under Article 2 thereof that â€Å"the present Convention shall apply to all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties, even if the state of war is not recognized by one of them. The Convention shall also apply to all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party, even if the said occupation meets with no armed resistance.† Moreover it bears stressing that the conventions also provide in Article 3 thereof that, â€Å"Persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention, or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any

Humanities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Humanities - Essay Example He tried to change the culture of Egypt by making the sun god, Aten, the most important of all. This also was a political move that gave him more power and pushed aside the priests of other gods. He was bold in his change of religious policies, and also broke tradition by moving the Egyptian capital to a new city. However, he was not popular enough to leave a legacy, and his changes did not last. Unlike Gilgamesh and Alexander, Akhenaten was not very representative of his people or time. Gilgamesh was a great king of the Mesopotamian kingdom of Uruk, who may have existed in reality as well as in legend. He was said to be part god and part man, and of course became a very popular figure among Mesopotamians, which lead to the survival of his story. Gilgamesh was unique for his position in myth and legend, and his character seems to be one that is less concerned with his society than with his own destiny. He goes of in search of adventure and finally in search of immortality. He did not make himself known for what he did in his kingdom like Alexander and Akhenaten, but instead was very individual. Like Alexander, however, he was seen as something of a godly figure. Finally, Alexander the Great was a prince of Macedonian descent who was full of ambition and military genius. He is different from the others in that he was a successful agent of change. He was significant for being regarded as a hero and a divine king like Gilgamesh, and in changing society, religions, governments, and cities like Akhenaten. Unlike Akhenaten, his changes had a lasting effect and the world was never able to change back, and overall Alexander was responsible for bringing about a new age in his unique role as a conquerer and reformer. These people were all strong cultural influences, in positive and negative ways. . As rulers, Alexander and Akhenaton both wielded much more political and military might. They were both similar in that they

Shylock and His Victimacy Essay Example for Free

Shylock and His Victimacy Essay Even thought it seemed like Shylock loved his money more than his daughter, it was still a very cruel thing to do to any one. This is because after harsh words like these you can see why Shylock is so driven to want to kill Antonio. The continuos onslaught of comments towards Shylock, makes him a more sympathetic character. Although this was a cruel thing to do, it was not the worst of the trials that Shylock was put through. After the trial between Shylock and Antonio, Shylock was cheated out of his bond then punished. The party gainst the which he doth contrive shall seize one half his goods, the other half comes to the privy coffer of the state, and the offendertms life lies in mercy(The Merchant of Venice; Act 4, Scene 1; Lines 349-351). Another quote that shows how Shylock was treated was said by Gratiano, O, be thou damned, inexorable dog, And for thy life let justice be accused! Thou almost maktmst me waver in my faith, To hold opinion with Pythagoras that souls of animals infuse themselves into the trunks of men: thy currish spirit governed a wolf, who hanged for human slaughter, Even from the gallows did his feet soul fleet, And whilst thou layest in thy unhallowed dam, Infused itself in thee; for thy desires are wolvish, bloody, starved, and ravenous (The Merchant of Venice; Act 4, Scene 1; Lines 128-138). To really understand Shylock one can not just look at his actions, but it is necessary to see why Shylock did them. Later in the play it is seen that Jessica regrets her decision to leave her father, which shows that it would not have been likely for her to leave without Lorenzo asking her to. My daughter! O my ducats! O my daughter! Fled with a Christian! O my Christian ducats! Justice! The law my ducats, and my daughter! (The Merchant of Venice; Act 2, Scene7; Lines 12-17). It should be said that Jessica, Shylocktms daughter, did leave on her own terms and did steal the ducats from her father, but she would not have done this without the persuasion from Lorenzo. No one should have to convert to a different religion, it is a horrible thing to happen to anyone. The way that Shylock is treated makes it clearer why Shylock is seen as the victim. Shylock lost all of his possessions, he was forced to convert to Christianity, and he almost had to plead for his life.

Identity as citizenship and the human rights

Identity as citizenship and the human rights This essay will be discussing about one of the three types of Bruneis citizenship. Brunei citizenship is divided into three categories. It is categorise by color which are yellow, purple and green and these color will be the color of the identity card hold by each of Brunei citizenships according to which citizenship they are categorised. In Brunei Darussalam, different identity card holder will get different specialty offered by the Bruneis government because in Brunei Darussalam, Brunei government is responsible for its citizen welfare. Specialty means welfare in terms of education, health care and job offer. The welfare given is different from one identity card holder to another. IDENTITY AS CITIZENSHIP AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS The focus of this essay will be on the purple card holder and my focal point is on students. The issue will be discuss after I elaborate the details of the purple citizenship status and their human rights in their stay in Brunei Darussalam. The purple card holder is for a citizen who came into Brunei Darussalam and married to a Brunei woman. This citizenship will also descent to their children if the father are not a local Bruneian. The child whose father holding the purple citizenship is categorise the same as their fathers citizenship even though they are born in Brunei. Purple card citizenship can also be given to people who plan to live permanently in Brunei Darussalam. The specialty given to the purple citizenship is different from what is given to the yellow card citizenship. Yellow citizenship is the pure citizenship which is called as local people. There is another citizenship status in Brunei which is a green card holder which will not be include in this discussion but the b est description is this type of citizenship is for temporary foreign worker who work in Brunei with two years renewable visa. The local people are the community who are given the specialty from the government in terms of education, health care and job offer. Local students are given scholarship for education. They do not have to pay anything for their primary school and secondary school even texts books are provided without any expense demands. Unlike the purple card citizenship, although they are born in Brunei they have to pay the school fees. The school fee is paid monthly and the cost will be increasing as they went to a higher level of education. Regarding health care, people with purple citizenship have to pay the amount of BND$30 for every prescription unlike the local citizenship which is the yellow card holder they only paying an amount of BND$1 for their prescription. They also have to pay for their stay if they were admitted in the hospital while local people pay nothing. Other than that, the purple card holder also cannot work as a government staff only until they get their yellow citizenship. The issue that questions this situation is why as a permanent citizenship (purple card holder) do not get the government specialty even though they have been staying in Brunei permanently and even some of them are born in Brunei. In Brunei if a local resident (yellow card holder) students applying for university they have to have an outstanding result in order to get a scholarship. If they are qualified with their result they will continue their study to the university and they will be given monthly allowance by the government. Unlike the purple citizenship, even though they get an outstanding result but they cannot enter the university by scholarship. They have to pay the school fee which is at the amount of BND$4000 per semester and this will cost them an overall of BND$24,000 for the whole degree course which took four years to be completed. As of the different welfare, occur some cases in Brunei where some parents did not afford to pay their childrens school fee and despondently their children are categorise as a very outstanding student in school. Sometime the students have to quit even at their early primary or secondary school because they could not continue their study due to financial matter. What makes it as a fair decision to differentiate a student with foreign father to pay for their education but they have been in Brunei since they born and are not going to another place to stay and grow other than in Brunei. If the government let them get the same benefit as the local resident will that harm the government in any way? This is the question which really needs a clear explanation especially for those who faced this situation. The children are considered as Brunei asset but why they have to be treated like foreigner. If the government cannot make any change to this children welfare who else can support their future. If the government cannot overcome this situation what will happen in the future if the number of unemployment is increasing. This would trouble the country and even adverse the future of Brunei because of the regardless of some outstanding asset. Below are the law and regulations of Brunei Government for applying the yellow card citizenship as stated in Brunei National Registry Members Section.  Available: http://www.imigresen.gov.bn.html. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011. The yellow card citizenship are recognise as the people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam. Only this people are eligible to get the welfare specialty given by the government. So in order to get the entire welfare from the government the resident with purple card holder can apply to change their purple card to yellow by the following regulations. ABSOLUTE EFFECTIVE BY THE LAW (CHAPTER 4 OF THE NATIONAL STANDARD OF BRUNEI) Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam: 1 Section is recognized as the Peoples Representatives of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam. 2 Assign legally in the country while the application is made. REGISTRATION BY [Chapter 5 (1), 6 (1) and 8 (1) OF THE NATIONAL STANDARD OF BRUNEI] CHAPTER 5 (1) THE APPLICANT IS BORN IN STATE Requirements for Applying for Status as the People of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam: The applicant has reached 18 years when the application is made The applicant is recognized as permanent residents to have Entry Permit / Residence Permit for 12 years from the date of issue Resided continuously in the country for 2 years prior to application Qualifications to people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam: Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned) Malay Language Examination Citizenship Status should divest Origin Obedience Oath lift Seta (after obtaining consent of His Gracious Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam. CHAPTER 6 (1) APPLICATION STATUS BY FATHER / MOTHER / PARENTS lift CITIZENS OF BRUNEI Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam The applicant is under 18 years old when the application is made Father / Mother / Parent Adoption is recognized as a people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam Legally residing in Brunei Darussalam during the application is made. Eligibility To be people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned) Shall deprive Kewarganegraan Original Status CHAPTER 8 (1) THE APPLICANT IS BORN ABROAD Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam The applicant is under 18 years old when the application is made The application is recognized as permanent residents with Entry Permit / Residence Permit for 20 years from the date of issue Resided continuously in the country for 2 years prior to application. Eligibility To be people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned) Passed the Malay Language Shall deprive Kewarganegraan Original Status Faithful Obedience Oath lift (after getting Perkenaan His Gracious Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam) As the regulation stated in the law of Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei it shows that it is applicable to be the people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam as long as they are qualified according to the law and regulation of National regulation. Somehow what can be seen from the regulation is it took a very long time for a purple card citizen to become and even apply the yellow citizenship. It is at some points wasting their time waiting and also wasting their money to spend on expense demand as a purple citizenship while at the end they will still to be recognized as a yellow citizenship. Therefore in this case time is really matter because through time it shows how much we spend for the expense demand and we could thing how worth it is to spend that amount of money just to go through that time estimation stated in the regulation. What if within the time the students are not be able to continue their study just because they cannot afford to pay the fees and after a long time when they get the yellow citizenship but at that time it is already impossible for them to continue their study because of their age factor. In Brunei there is school regulation where only certain age can enter certain level of education as stated in Education System.  Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. If they could not continue their study just because of this matter then who are to be blame and who are to be responsible for their future. According to regulation on chapter 5(1) for applicants who born in Brunei. They can only apply the yellow citizenship if the y reach their age of 18 years old. But if we think about this prudently why do the parents have to pay for their education until they reach their age of 18 years old and then after that they are conform to be a local citizenship. This is a waste of money. Of course in terms of future it is sometimes under the responsibilities of their parents. But what if the father earns low income just because he cannot work with the government. The government cannot offer any job and he has to work at private sector with low salary because he is still waiting for the yellow citizenship and he could not get the job offer by the government since he is still holding the purple citizenship. This will affect the future of their child especially when they have number of children to depend on them. As stated in Job Vacancy.  Available: http://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011 which is showing the conditions for applying government job as below: General Conditions: The applicants of the people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam. The applicant knowledge of kerasmian religion, customs, culture, social development, economics and politics of Brunei Darussalam. Willing to work anytime outside normal working hours on working on a rotation basis (shift) or during public holidays and also be willing to serve in any district in the country. In order for a child to rely on their fathers citizenship as stated in the regulation chapter 6(1) the father has to have a permit of 20 years as a purple citizenship (permanent citizenship) and the child must not yet reach the age of 18. Lets say the father has not reach the estimation time staying in Brunei for 20 years and the child are already eligible to apply the yellow citizenship, this would delayed the child from making the application for the yellow citizenship until they reach their age of 18 years old. There are also cases happen to purple citizen students where they have to postpone from entering the university because they have to wait until they reach their age of 18 years old to make them eligible to get the scholarship to enter the university as the regulation stated in admission.  Available: http://www.ubd.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. They also do not have any option for example to work with the government even though the finished their study in the government school by fee because they have to have the yellow citizenship. In cases like this also happen that the child cannot make the application to get the yellow citizenship at all because if they already reach their age of 18 and was born abroad and their father have not reach the 20 years being a permanent resident they are no longer eligible to make an application. This is because as stated in chapter 8(1) if applicants are born abroad they are only eligible to make application before they reach the age of 18 years old. They also having problem to apply for scholarship to study abroad. In Brunei, students with outstanding A level result will be eligible to get study abroad scholarship but the condition is they must be holding the yellow citizenship as stated in Scholarship.  Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. For students who are holding purple citizenship, they cannot apply for this scholarship even they have got a very excellent result. Therefore some of them who did not afford to pay for a very expensive school fee cannot continue their study to a higher level of education especially university. Sometime they have to waste their time waiting for their citizenship application to be approved by the Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei. For applicants stated in chapter 8(1) the law and regulation of Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei for applicants who was born abroad in order to be have the yellow citizenship of Brunei they have to pass their Malay Language Test. If they do not pass the test they have to try until they can get through and qualified to be the yellow citizenship. In this cases happen that they have to try for so many years to be qualified but what is worth trying in years in order to get the scholarship if the scholarship has limit the requirement only to students who is below 25 years old. In Brunei if someone is to apply for education scholarship they must be not more than 25 years old. If someone with purple citizenship are recognised as the yellow citizenship after their age of 25 years old than what is worth fighting for doing the test in years while according to their academic qualification they are actually qualified to continue their study. For those who can afford to pay for their education to university level and manage to complete their degree with outstanding qualification that does not mean that they can work with the government. This is because the regulation to work with the government is they must have a yellow citizenship. If they do not qualified in terms of citizenship their academic result will not be considered by the government even though they are qualified in terms of academic qualification. In the end they have to spend years working with private sector and earn lower income which is not suitable for their academic qualification and what have they been going through will continuously happen to their children as well. Some of them also have to move to other country to seek for appropriate and suitable job for their qualification. CONCLUSION There are so many things to be considered and analysed in this issue. The regulation delayed the application in terms of the demand of the time requirements to be the yellow citizenship. Most applicants have to wait for a very long time until they are applicable to be the yellow citizenship. Along their journey to get the yellow citizenship they have lost so many valuable things such as their time, their effort and even their future. If this happen continuously to the resident of Brunei specially the purple citizen it will leads to a big lost to the country in terms of losing the intelligent assets and also will leads to massive number of unemployment in the future. It is not erroneous to put a law for people to apply the yellow citizenship of Brunei. But the time required for the purple citizenship to apply the yellow citizenship should be decreased for the country and resident own good and for a better future. (2,860 words) Bibligraphy: admission.  Available: http://www.ubd.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011 Education System.  Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. Job Vacancy.  Available: http://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011 Members Section.  Available: http://www.imigresen.gov.bn.html. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011 Scholarship.  Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011.

Social Benefits of Diversifying Residential Units

Social Benefits of Diversifying Residential Units POTENTIAL SOCIAL BENEFITS OF DIVERSIFYING RESIDENTIAL UNITS DESIGN AS SMART GROWTH CITY PRINCIPLE IN URBAN AFFORDABLE HOUSING. Tan Wan Joo1, Lam Tuck Lone2 and Meor Mohammad Fared3 Master in Architecture1,2, Assoc. Professor3 Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor. ABSTRACT In the recent years, urban affordable housing has been experiencing significant high rise residential growth. It is forecasted that the change that over the next 20 years the demographic profile of the municipalitys established suburbs, resulting in the need for a greater range of housing types. With the forecast, Malaysia and Singapore housing development is in the process of diversifying the unit layouts to cater for changing social needs which scenario has yet to be studied. The main purpose of this study is to determine the potential social benefits of diversifying high-rise residential units in the urban affordable housing in the context of Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Additionally, it identifies the various appropriate high rise residential units design to meet the communitys existing and future needs of housing. By using multiple case studies method, the unit design will be analyzed based on the its size, its provided rooms, its total units and its provided basic facilities and amenities as well as how it benefited the society. Hence, this study significantly shows the prominent of the diversifying residential units design as smart growth city principle in the urban context of Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Keywords: diversifying residential units design, smart city principle, social benefits, urban affordable housing. RESEARCH QUESTION What are the potential social benefits of the diversifying high rise residential units design towards the society? INTRODUCTION In todays urban development, high density and compact development has been significantly discussed to support the growth in population in the urban context. High rise residential developments, which is also called as vertical living, are strongly promoted in almost every governmental affordable housing planning policy to be set in context of city centre. The current market demands a sense of vibrancy and community in the mixed development that they live in (Bell, 2004). Almost 68% of all Malaysian, which is about 18 millions of Malaysian, have chosen to live in the towns and cities as it shows a relatively high developing of urbanisation in the developing country (Wan Nor Azriyati WAN ABD AZIZ, 2014). As the population growth in the urban context, the needs for more residential housing in the vertical form are desperately getting higher in order to support the change in the different life stages and the housing needs. Likewise, in Singapore, the needs of vertical form of residential housing has been rapidly increased along the growth in the population and the change of different life stages. Hence, Malaysia government has drafted ACT 739 under the Law of Malaysia to set up a body of organisation called PR1MA, Perumahan Rakyat 1 Malaysia, to plan, develop, construct and maintain the high quality of affordable housing. On the other hand, Singapore government has established a public housing authority, which is called Housing Development Board (HDB), to plan and develop the housing estates as well as to transform the town into more comfortable and living environment. There are various projects are being developed and constructed in the recent years, especially in suburban area and urban context. Both of the established organisations have implemented the smart growth city principles. The rapid speed of growth of the ongoing urbanisation in both Malaysia and Singapore has created the opportunities to implement the smart growth city principles in most of the development to avoid the highly inefficient urban sprawl in the urban context. However, one of strategies of smart growth principles stated that a range of housing opportunities and choices should be created and implemented in the development to support the different life stages of community. Therefore, diversity of housing choices in the selected projects has offered greater opportunities to create a more vibrant types of community, meanwhile, it also supports various range of incomes in one development. OBJECTIVES This study aims to analyze the potential benefits of diversifying high rise residential unit design in urban affordable housing to the society. LITERATURE REVIEW What is Smart Growth? Smart growth is defined as a development that supports economic growth, strong communities and environmental health. Smart growth development intended to create high quality of that makes the communities to achieve economically competitive, create business opportunities and strengthens the local tax base. In order to create and maintain great neighborhoods, the Smart Growth Network developed a set of 10 basic principles to guide smart growth strategies. (Anon., 2015) Ten Principles of Smart Growth 1. Mix land uses2. Take advantage of compact design3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices4. Create walkable neighborhoods5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty and critical environmental areas7. Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities8. Provide a variety of transportation choices9. Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost effective 10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions. By implementing the 3rd principle of Smart Growth, the development must provide a range of housing opportunities and choices to meet the communitys existing and future needs. The provision of quality housing for families of all life stages and income levels is an integral part of the smart growth approaches. There are various reasons that cities should offer a diverse range of housing choices for local residents. By integrating the planning structures for single and multi-family in new residential development, the development itself can support a more diverse population. It also allows more equitable distribution of households of all income levels. Besides, it is leading to create a higher demand for community services and facilities such as malls, schools, health care, office and recreation facilities. Diversifying housing in vertical form has also provided more opportunities in the development that allows the residents to have choices in a small piece of land. However, when the development focuses into one type of housing, it creates a number of potential issues. The development will manage to attract one type of resident, which does not achieve the goal of diverse population in term of age, income level, families and singles. Hence, this approach does not manage to create a sustainable community for the reason being that no single type of housing can serve the various demand of diverse household in todays market. Furthermore, if the types of community are being separated and group by the aspects of income levels, the locals with low income will be forced to accommodate in the suburb area and, hence, the social problems will be increased when the community are being segregated. What is Urban Affordable Housing? The concept of urban affordable housing can be defined as the allocation for rental or instalment must not exceed 30% of the total household income in the urban context (B Bakhtyar, 2012). By that means, the unit of housing can only be affordable if the residents household spend within 30% of its income on the housing costs, including the utilities, for them to live in the urban context where the growth of economic is rapidly increasing. What is PR1MA? PR1MA was established as a government owned company under PR1MA Act 2012 and under the supervision of Ministry of Housing and Local Government. It is established to help the intended demographic of middle income group to manage the cost of living in the context of urban areas. The residential houses are provided in the sustainable community and be priced within the range of RM 100,000 to RM 400,000. However, most of high rise residential development will be planned and further developed in the context of urban areas. Hence, this study will focus into the types of unit layouts of vertical living based on the following projects as the case studies. Case Studies of HDB in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1. PR1MA @ Jalan Jubilee, Kuala Lumpur This development is one of the high rise affordable residential housing project located in the city centre and accessible through Jalan Loke Yew and Jalan Jubilee. This project offered three basic types of unit layout in the total of 543 units in 2.5 acres of land, which is shown in Figure 1 below. This development has included amenities for community, such as surau, community hall, kindergarten, shops, nursery and playground, to ease the community to walk within their compound for the basic facilities. The provision of three basic types of units, which comprise 3 bedrooms with 2 bathrooms for unit type A and C as well as 2 bedrooms with 2 bathrooms for unit type B, has given the opportunities to the small family to set up their family in the urban context. However, the vibrancy of community hardly to be achieved due to the development focuses into standardise the unit layouts into three basic types. Figure 1: Unit Layouts are shown accordingly for Type A (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms), Type B (2 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms) and Type C (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms). Source: http://www.pr1ma.my 2. PR1MA @ Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur In the context of city centre in Kuala Lumpur, this development is being developed in the area with well-developed infrastructures in the surrounding site as it is accessible through 4 access points, for instance, New Pantai Expressway (NPE), Jalan Tun Sambanthan, Jalan Bangsar and Jalan Syed Putra. It is also located near train stations, Bangsar station and KL Sentral station. The development provides the basic facilities for the residents such as surau, community hall, kindergarten, nursery, gymnasium, playground and shops. However, due to the bigger land size, this development manages to provide more variety of unit layouts with the total of 920 units in 6.37 acres of land. The provision of five basic types of unit layout manages to show that this development has implemented one of the smart growth principles as it creates the diversified of housing choices and opportunities in order to cater a more vibrancy type of community within its own development. The development comprises 1 bedroom with 1 utility and 2 bathrooms for unit type A, 2 bedrooms with 2 bathrooms for unit type B, 2 bedrooms with 1 utility and 2 bathrooms for unit type C, 3 bedrooms and 2 bathrooms for unit type D and 1 bedroom with 1 bathroom for unit type E. See Figure 2. Figure 2: Unit Layouts are shown accordingly for Type A (1 Bedrooms with 1 Utility 2 Bathrooms), Type B (2 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms), Type C (2 Bedrooms with 1 Utility 2 Bathrooms), Type D (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms) and Type E (1 Bedroom Bathroom). Source: http://www.pr1ma.my What is HDB? The Housing Development Board (HDB) is Singapores public housing authority and a statutory board under the Ministry of National Development. Besides planning and developing Singapores housing estates, HDB also contributes in building homes and transform towns to create a comfortable living environment for all. By provides various commercial, recreational and social amenities in our towns for our residents convenience. HDB flats were built primarily to provide affordable housing to the poor and their purchase can be financially aided by the Central Provident Fund (CPF). Today, as many as 82% of Singaporeans live in public housing provided by the HDB. Case Studies of HDB in Singapore 1. Trivelis HDB, Clementi Avenue 4 Trivelis, a DBSS with 888 units comprises of 3. 4. 5-Room units in three 40-storey towers, and total site area is 21,906.5sqm. it is a development that stands out from the crowd, with its awe-inspiring architecture of striking black and white solid lines. With selling prices start from $390,000 to 770,000, it is a leasehold 99 tenure type of unit (HDB DBSS ).Same as others, this HDB flat has provided basic facilities for community such as playground, precinct pavilion, childcare centre, outdoor fitness station, open courtyard, open plaza, garden footpath and open turf area within its own development. Due to its strategic location in Clementi new town, a destination complete with convenient facilities and amenities such as as shopping mall, Clementi central, community center, masjid, recreational park at Jurong lake and institute such as NUS, Clementi Town secondary school, Japanese School and high school. Trivelis HDB is well located 5 minutes away from Clementi MRT station (East-Wes t line) and Clementi bus interchange, it is convenient to travel anywhere around just by taking public transport. The Trivelis HDB flats provide 3 fundamental types of unit layout, which is 2-Room type, 3-room type.and 4-Room type. The 60 sqm 2-Room type unit comprises of 2 bedrooms with 2 shared bathrooms, the 82 sqm 3-Room type unit comprises of 3 bedrooms with 2 shared bathrooms and the 105 sqm 4-Room type unit comprises of 3 bedrooms with 2 shared bathrooms and 1 study room for alternative uses. By creating a range of housing choices in the development, it supports more diverse population from different income level, ages group and families size to stay. A better balance of demand for community services and facilities will be provided equally such as schools for kids and teenagers, health care for elderly, office for adults and recreation facilities for everyone. Thus creating a sustainable community which serve the various demand of todays diverse household. Figure 3: Unit Layouts are shown accordingly for Typical 2-Room (2 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms), Typical 3-Room (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms) and Typical 4-Room (4 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms).   Ã‚   Source: http://www.hdb-dbss.com/trivelis/#tab-floorplan 2. The SkyTerrace @ Dawson HDB flats, Queenstown The 758-unit SkyTerrace is made up of 5 towers of 40 to 43 storeys that sit atop a parking podium. With a Housing-in-the-Park concept, SkyTerrace used extensive and expansive green spaces across both developments. Residents will be greeted with a cascading green terrace on the faà §ade of the multi-storey carpark once enter to the flats. Well designated rooftop garden with landscape at the top level of the carpark will leads residents to an open space, aiding social interaction within the community. These green pockets encourage residents to exercise or even an evening walk within the community, jogging track is providing on the roof garden at the top level. SkyTerrace HDB flats has provided 6 types of unit layout, which is studio apartment type, 2-room type, typical 3-Room type, 3-Room with loft type, typical 4-Room type and 4-Room with loft type. The Studio apartment which combines living/dining area, master bedroom with bathroom, a household shelter and a kitchenette in a single unit. Typical 2-Room layout consists of living dining area, a kitchen with service yard, a household shelter, a shared bathroom, a master bedroom with bathroom and 1 double bedroom. While 3-Rooms layout comes in standard, loft with attached studio apartment configuration for the dual generation living concept. Typical 3-Room layout consist of living dining area, a household shelter, kitchen with service yard, a master bedroom with bathroom, a shared bathroom and 2 bedrooms. On the other hand, the 3-Room in loft type are designated to have living area with balcony, dining area, a household shelter, kitchen with service yard, a master bedroom with bathroom, a shared bathroom and 1 double bedroom on lower floor; another set of living, dining area and kitchen on upper floor with having same concept as studio apartment type, master bedroom with bathroom and an alternative single bedroom turn from family area. Planning of SkyTerrace is perfect for variety income level of people in different stage of life course, it reflected the diversity of housing unit in high-rise. The concept of diversity layout in 3-Room type is suitable for dual generation who having children and elderly parents living together. And also normal household who buy the loft unit as invest and rent out one of the floor to earn extra income. While the studio apartment layout is just nice for 1-2 residents such as growing senior citizen, single-person and married-couple without child. Figure 4.1: Unit Layouts are shown accordingly for Studio Apartment (1 Bedrooms 1 Bathrooms), Typical 2-Room (2 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms), Typical 3-Room (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms) and Loft 3-Room Type (3 Bedrooms 3 Bathrooms). Source: https://dawsonites.wordpress.com/2014/12/08/floor-plans-suggested-layouts-for-dawson-skyterrace/ Figure 4.2: Unit Layouts are shown accordingly for Typical 4-Room (3 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms) and Loft 4-Room (4 Bedrooms 2 Bathrooms). Source: https://dawsonites.wordpress.com/2014/12/08/floor-plans-suggested-layouts-for-dawson-skyterrace/ Impact of social benefits forward to the society A diversity of high-rise residential units helps respond to the housing needs of communities at different stage of life course, it helps to provides opportunities for communities where people can move home without leaving their neighborhood. People first preference is often to stay living in their existing neighborhood where friends and support network are already well established. Secondly, greater housing diversity in high-rise residential units can help to fosters more opportunities for a wide range of income groups to choose their ideal housing types in well-serviced locations. Social interaction with neighbor from different background of race, ethnicity, culture and occupation helps in developing good-neighborly friendly relations, thus build up a caring homeland. Besides that, diversifying residential units foster a healthier community through the development of walkable communities. The most sought neighborhood characteristics of all buyers is walkability, living in a healthy community is everyones dream. More and more of us want to be live within a safe and comfortable walking distance of the destinations that meet our everyday needs, such as work, place to shop, eat, services, play and good transportation options that take us to downtown. A provision of walkable community would also contribute to ensure residents health by encouraging walking and cycling as major transportation method. By improve the walkability in the urban city, it helps to reduce the social disadvantage caused by rising fuel prices and transport costs. Residents burden on living expense get reduced, thus guaranteed their quality of life with less stress. CONCLUSION This paper has studied the impacts of social benefits forward to the society for having a diversity of residential units design in the development. Through the analysis of the multiple case studies, it has shown that authority of Singapore has enforced the urban affordable development to have a diversity of residential units design in order to capture the needs of the present and future. Along the process of life-changing cycle, the developments in Singapore manage to foster the opportunities for the community to choose the housing in all the life stages. However, in Malaysia, PR1MA is still struggling in the planning process to capture the vibrancy of communities in most of the projects due to the market demands. Hence, diversity of residential design units not fostered the vibrancy of communities but, it also creates a healthier neighborhood, enhances the economic growth and it reduces the social issues. REFERENCES Anon., 2012. Perbadanan PR1MA Malaysia. [Online] Available at: http://www.pr1ma.my/ Anon., 2015. Smart Growth Online. [Online] Available at: http://smartgrowth.org/smart-growth-principles/ B Bakhtyar, A, 2012. Affordable Quality Housing for Urban Low Income Earners in. Advances in Environmental Science and Sustainability, 4 December , p. 62. Bell, J., 2004. A Mixed-Use Renaissance. Mortgage Banking, 64(8), p. 66. Wan Nor Azriyati WAN ABD AZIZ, 2014. Vertical Living Phenomenon in Malaysia. FIG Congress 2014, 16-21 June, pp. Engaging the Challenges Enhancing the Relevance. Anon., 2015. Public Housing In Singapore-Fulfilling Dreams, Building Homes, Creating Communities, Singapore: Housing Development Board. Bell, J., 2004. A Mixed-Use Renaissance. Mortgage Banking, 64(8), p. 66. Whittlesea, C. o. (n.d.). Housing Diversity Strategy 2013-2033, 14. Petersen, A. (May 2011). Housing Diversity Guide. landcom, 7-8. Singapore Home Decor. (18 Jul, 2016). Retrieved from Amazing HDB estates in SIngapore- tour Sky Ville and Sky Terrace at Dawson: http://www.homeanddecor.com.sg/articles/83176-see-new-face-hdb-housing-dawson-estate (n.d.). Public Housing in Singapore. Singapore: Housing Development Board. Housing Diversity. (n.d.). Retrieved from Healthy Active by Design: http://www.healthyactivebydesign.com.au/design-features/housing-diversity Amazing HDB estates in Singapore- tour Sky Ville and Sky Terrace at Dawson. (18 Jul, 2016). Retrieved from Singapore Home Decor: http://www.homeanddecor.com.sg/articles/83176-see-new-face-hdb-housing-dawson-estate